Saturday, 28 December 2013

Control of Public Expenditure



The necessity to control public expenditure in order to check misuse of public funds. The most important means of control are as follows -----
1)Budgetary Control:- Budgetary preparation is most primary stage of control of expenditure. Budget is well thought-out plan of governmental activities during the coming year. How much of the public funds are to be spent for which particular activities, which particular department, what should be the allocation of public funds for the use of particular department are all specified in the budget frame.
2)Legislature Control:- After the budget preparation it has to be presented in the legislature for its approval. There occurs debate in the legislature where the members seek clarification and justification of expenditure programs. After the critical study expenditures estimated originally may be enhanced or kept  unchanged according to the merit of the case.
3)Administrative Control:- The rules and regulation ensure that no amount is spent without proper sanction to same other purpose for which it is not sanctioned. There is a elaborate body of rules to fix responsibility on specific executive personnel for the funds spent.
4)Audit Control:-  The next step is scrutiny of the accounts and audit control. Every department has its accounts section which scrutinizes all accounts of  expenditure and ensure that public funds are spent according to rules of property, economy and efficient utilization.

Wednesday, 25 December 2013

Forms of Public Enterprises



There are four main types of public enterprises. These are discussed below.
1.Departmental form of public sector : Some public enterprises run departmentally. They are kept under an appropriate department of the govt. ,financed out of the funds allotted to the department by the legislature and are managed by civil servants belonging to that department. There are some main characteristics of this type.
a) The departmental form of P.E. is an oldest form of public enterprise.
b) The function is responsible to the government.
2. Company form of public enterprises  :- The second form of organization set up of public enterprise is that of joint stock company in its various forms. The company form of organization has been the most popular form for obvious reason. E.g. coal India Limited, Steel Authority of India are the example of company form of public enterprises.
3.Public Corporation :-Public Corporation may be defined as a legal entity created by the govt. but exterior to the govt. organization, hence financially independent for the purpose of carrying on the specified activities in a manner prescribed in the low creating it. According to Herbert Morrison, ‘’Public Corporation is a combination of public ownership, public accountability and business management for public ends.’’ E.g. ONGC, OIL etc..
4.Joint Sector :-Joint sector refers to that organization where the government and public sector works jointly. In such enterprises, the combination of capital provided by the govt. and the management technique is co-exist. The day to day activities of this enterprises are carried out by the board of directors.

Monday, 23 December 2013

  Meaning of  Public Utilities ( ā§°াāĻœāĻšুā§ąা āĻ‰āĻĒāĻ¯োāĻ—ী āĻ¸েā§ąা )

      ā§°াāĻœāĻšুā§ąা āĻ‰āĻĒāĻ¯োāĻ—ী āĻ¸েā§ąা āĻŦুāĻ˛িāĻ˛ে āĻāĻ¨ে āĻ•িāĻ›ুāĻŽাāĻ¨ āĻ¸েā§ąাāĻ• āĻŦুāĻœাāĻ¯় , āĻ¯িāĻŦোā§° āĻ¸াāĻŽাāĻœিāĻ• āĻ¸্āĻŦাā§°্āĻĨ āĻĒূā§°āĻŖā§° āĻŦাāĻŦে āĻšā§°āĻ•াā§°ে āĻ¯োāĻ—াāĻ¨ āĻ§ā§°ে ৷ āĻ¯েāĻ¨ে :- āĻĒাāĻ¨ী āĻ¯োāĻ—াāĻ¨ ,āĻŦিāĻĻ্āĻ¯ুā§Ž āĻ¯োāĻ—াāĻ¨ , āĻĒā§°িāĻŦāĻšāĻ¨ ,āĻ¯োāĻ—াāĻ¯োāĻ— āĻ‡āĻ¤্āĻ¯াāĻĻি ৷āĻāĻ¨ে āĻ¸েā§ąাā§° āĻ¯োāĻ—াāĻ¨ āĻœāĻ¨āĻ¸াāĻ§াā§°āĻŖā§° āĻ•āĻ˛্āĻ¯াāĻŖā§° āĻĻিāĻļā§° āĻĒā§°া āĻ‡āĻŽাāĻ¨েāĻ‡ āĻ—ুā§°ুāĻ¤্āĻŦāĻĒূā§°্āĻŖ āĻ¯ে āĻāĻ‡āĻŦোā§°ā§° āĻ¯োāĻ—াāĻ¨ā§° āĻ•্āĻˇেāĻ¤্ā§°āĻ¤ āĻĒ্ā§°āĻ¤িāĻ¯োāĻ—িāĻ¤াā§° āĻ‰āĻĒāĻ¸্āĻĨিāĻ¤ি āĻœāĻ¨āĻ¸াāĻ§াā§°āĻŖā§° āĻ•াā§°āĻŖে āĻŽংāĻ—āĻ˛āĻœāĻ¨āĻ• āĻ¨āĻšāĻ¯় ৷
Characteristics of Public Utilities services-

1)      āĻĒ্ā§°āĻ¯়োāĻœāĻ¨ীāĻ¯় āĻ¸েā§ąা :-
       āĻāĻ¨ে āĻ¸েā§ąাāĻ‡ āĻŽাāĻ¨ুāĻšā§° āĻ•িāĻ›ুāĻŽাāĻ¨ āĻŽৌāĻ˛িāĻ• āĻ…āĻ­াā§ą ,āĻ¯েāĻ¨ে: āĻĒাāĻ¨ী āĻ¯োāĻ—াāĻ¨, āĻĒোāĻšā§°, āĻĒā§°িāĻŦāĻšāĻ¨,āĻ¯োāĻ—াāĻ¯োāĻ— āĻ‡āĻ¤্āĻ¯াāĻĻি āĻĒূā§°āĻŖ āĻ•ā§°ে ৷ āĻāĻ¨ে āĻ¸েā§ąা āĻ•োāĻ¨ো āĻŦিāĻ­েāĻĻ āĻ¨āĻ•ā§°াāĻ•ৈ āĻ…āĻ¤ি āĻ¸ূāĻ˛āĻ­ āĻŽূāĻ˛্āĻ¯āĻ¤ āĻĒ্ā§°āĻĻাāĻ¨ āĻ•ā§°া āĻšāĻ¯় ৷

2)      āĻ¸্āĻŦাāĻ­াāĻŦিāĻ• āĻāĻ•āĻšেāĻŸিāĻ¯়া āĻŦ্āĻ¯ā§ąāĻ¸াāĻ¯় :-
    ā§°াāĻœāĻšুā§ąা āĻ‰āĻĒāĻ¯োāĻ—ী āĻ¸েā§ąা āĻ¸āĻŽূāĻšā§° āĻ…āĻ§িāĻ•াংāĻļ āĻ¸্āĻŦাāĻ­াā§ąিāĻ• āĻāĻ•āĻšেāĻŸিāĻ¯়া āĻŦ্āĻ¯ā§ąāĻ¸াāĻ¯়ā§° āĻ…ā§°্āĻ¨্āĻ¤āĻ­ূāĻ•্āĻ¤ āĻšāĻ¯় ৷ āĻ¨ূāĻ¨্āĻ¯āĻ¤āĻŽ āĻŦ্āĻ¯āĻ¯়āĻ¤ āĻ‰āĻš্āĻš āĻŽাāĻ¨āĻĻāĻŖ্āĻĄā§° āĻ¸েā§ąা āĻ¯োāĻ—াāĻ¨ā§° āĻ‰āĻĻ্āĻĻেāĻļ্āĻ¯ āĻ†ā§°ু āĻ•্ā§°āĻŽāĻš্ā§°াāĻ¸āĻŽাāĻ¨ āĻŦ্āĻ¯āĻ¯়ā§° āĻŦাāĻŦে āĻāĻ¨ে āĻ¸েā§ąাā§°  āĻ•্āĻˇেāĻ¤্ā§°āĻ¤ āĻĒ্ā§°āĻ¤িāĻ¯োāĻ—িāĻ¤াāĻŽূāĻ˛āĻ• āĻŦāĻœাā§° āĻ‰āĻĻ্āĻ­ā§ą āĻ¨āĻšāĻ¯় ৷

3)       āĻ…āĻŦিā§°āĻ¤  āĻšাāĻšিāĻĻা :-
    āĻĒাāĻ¨ী āĻ¯োāĻ—াāĻ¨ ,āĻŦিāĻĻ্āĻ¯ুā§Ž āĻ¯োāĻ—াāĻ¨ ,āĻ¯োāĻ—াāĻ¯োāĻ— āĻ†āĻĻিā§° āĻĻā§°ে ā§°াāĻœāĻšুā§ąা āĻ‰āĻĒāĻ¯োāĻ—ী āĻ¸েā§ąা āĻ¸āĻŽূāĻšā§° āĻšাāĻšিāĻĻা āĻ…āĻŦিā§°āĻ¤ ৷

4)      āĻ…āĻšāĻ¸্āĻ¤াāĻ¨্āĻ¤ā§°āĻ¯োāĻ—্āĻ¯ :-
    ā§°াāĻœāĻšুā§ąা āĻ‰āĻĒāĻ¯োāĻ—ী āĻ¸েā§ąাāĻ¸āĻŽূāĻš āĻšāĻ¸্āĻ¤াāĻ¨্āĻ¤ā§° āĻ¯োāĻ—্āĻ¯ āĻ¨āĻšāĻ¯় ৷āĻ…ā§°্āĻĨ্āĻ¯াā§Ž āĻāĻœāĻ¨ āĻ•্ā§°েāĻ¤াāĻ‡ ā§°াāĻœāĻšুā§ąা āĻ‰āĻĒāĻ¯োāĻ—ী āĻ¸েā§ąাā§° āĻĒ্ā§°āĻ¤ি āĻ¤েāĻ“ঁā§° āĻšাāĻšিāĻĻা āĻāĻœāĻ¨ āĻŦিāĻ•্ā§°েāĻ¤াā§° āĻĒā§°া āĻ†āĻ¨ āĻāĻœāĻ¨āĻ˛ৈ āĻšāĻ¸্āĻ¤াāĻ¨্āĻ¤ā§° āĻ•ā§°িāĻŦ āĻ¨োā§ąাā§°ে ৷

5)      āĻ¨িāĻŽ্āĻ¨ āĻŦাā§°্āĻˇিāĻ• āĻĒ্ā§°āĻ¤িāĻĻাāĻ¨ :-
   āĻ…āĻ¨্āĻ¯ āĻŦ্āĻ¯ā§ąāĻ¸াāĻ¯়ā§° āĻ¤ুāĻ˛āĻ¨াāĻ¤ ā§°াāĻœāĻšুā§ąা āĻ‰āĻĒāĻ¯োāĻ—ী āĻĒ্ā§°āĻ¤িāĻˇ্āĻ াāĻ¨ āĻŦোā§°ā§° āĻŦাā§°্āĻˇিāĻ• āĻĒ্ā§°āĻ¤িāĻĻাāĻ¨ āĻ¸াāĻ§াā§°āĻŖāĻ¤ে āĻ•āĻŽ āĻšāĻ¯়৷āĻāĻ¨ে āĻĒ্ā§°āĻ¤িāĻˇ্āĻ াāĻ¨ে āĻĒ্ā§°āĻ¯়োāĻœāĻ¨ীāĻ¯় āĻ¸েā§ąাāĻ¸āĻŽূāĻš āĻ¸ূ্āĻ˛āĻ­ āĻŽূāĻ˛্āĻ¯āĻ¤ āĻ†āĻ—āĻŦāĻĸ়োā§ąা āĻŦাāĻŦে  āĻĒ্ā§°āĻ¤িāĻˇ্āĻ াāĻ¨āĻŸোāĻ¤ āĻŽুāĻ  āĻŽূāĻ˛āĻ§āĻ¨ āĻŦিāĻ¨িāĻ¯়োāĻ—āĻ¤āĻ•ৈ āĻŦাā§°্āĻˇিāĻ•  āĻŽুāĻ  āĻŦিāĻ•্ā§°ী āĻ†āĻ¯় āĻ•āĻŽ āĻšāĻ¯় ৷

Objectives of Public Utility Services

1)      āĻ¸ā§°্āĻŦāĻ¤োāĻĒ্ā§°āĻ•াā§°ে āĻ‰āĻĻ্āĻ¯োāĻ— āĻ¸্āĻĨাāĻĒāĻ¨āĻ¤ āĻ¸āĻšাāĻ¯় āĻ•ā§°া ৷
2)      āĻ‰āĻĻ্āĻ¯োāĻ— āĻ¸্āĻšাāĻĒāĻ¨āĻ¤ āĻŦৃāĻšā§Ž āĻĒā§°িāĻŽাāĻ¨ā§° āĻŦিāĻ¨িāĻ¯়োāĻ— ৷
3)      āĻœāĻ¨āĻ¸াāĻ§াā§°āĻŖā§° āĻ¸াāĻŽূāĻšিāĻ• āĻ…āĻ­াā§ą āĻĻূā§°ীāĻ•ā§°āĻŖ ৷
4)       āĻ¸āĻŽ āĻ…ā§°্āĻĨāĻ¨ৈāĻ¤িāĻ• āĻŦিāĻ•াāĻļ ৷
5)      āĻ…ā§°্āĻĨāĻ¨ৈāĻ¤িāĻ• āĻļāĻ•্āĻ¤িā§° āĻ•েāĻ¨্āĻĻ্ā§°ীāĻ•ā§°āĻŖāĻ¤ āĻŦাāĻ§া ৷
6)      āĻšā§°āĻ•াā§°ী āĻ†ঁāĻšāĻ¨িā§° āĻ•াā§°্āĻ¯āĻ•ā§°ীāĻ•ā§°āĻŖāĻ¤ āĻ¸āĻšাāĻ¯় ৷ āĻ‡āĻ¤্āĻ¯াāĻĻি৷


                                                      āĻĒাā§°্āĻļ্āĻŦāĻœ্āĻ¯োāĻ¤ি>>



Saturday, 21 December 2013

PUBLIC FINANCE

                                        


Govt. of every country has to perform certain activities which can broadly be classified under two headings namely obligatory and optional. Maintenance of peace and liberty and sovereignty are some of the obligatory functions while provision of educational facility, medical facilities etc. are some of the optional functions. To perform all these functions efficiently and adequately, govt. needs a huge fund of money. Public finance basically concerns with studying the source and maintenance of govt. funds. Therefore the main scope of public finance is public revenue, public expenditure, public debt and financial administration. 

Wednesday, 18 December 2013

Characteristics of Public Enterprises ( ā§°াāĻœāĻšুā§ąা āĻ–āĻŖ্āĻĄā§° āĻ‰āĻĻ্āĻ¯োāĻ—ā§° āĻŦৈāĻļিāĻˇ্āĻŸ্āĻ¯ )

1)      āĻšā§°āĻ•াā§°ā§° āĻĻ্āĻŦাā§°া āĻŦিāĻ¤্āĻ¤ā§° āĻ¯োāĻ—াāĻ¨  :-
     ā§°াāĻœāĻšুā§ąা āĻ–āĻŖ্āĻĄā§° āĻ‰āĻĻ্āĻ¯োāĻ—āĻ¸āĻŽূāĻšāĻ˛ৈ āĻ¸াāĻ§াā§°āĻŖāĻ¤ে āĻšā§°āĻ•াā§°ে āĻŦিāĻ¤্āĻ¤ā§° āĻ¯োāĻ—াāĻ¨ āĻ§ā§°ে ৷

2)      āĻšā§°āĻ•াā§°ā§° āĻĒā§°িāĻšাāĻ˛āĻ¨া :-

     ā§°াāĻœāĻšুā§ąা āĻ–āĻŖ্āĻĄā§° āĻ‰āĻĻ্āĻ¯োāĻ—āĻ¸āĻŽূāĻš āĻšā§°āĻ•াā§°ে āĻĒā§°িāĻšাāĻ˛āĻ¨া āĻ•ā§°ে ৷āĻāĻ¨ে āĻ‰āĻĻ্āĻ¯োāĻ—āĻ¸āĻŽূāĻš āĻĒā§°িāĻšাāĻ˛āĻ¨াā§° āĻŦাāĻŦে āĻšā§°āĻ•াā§°ে āĻŦিāĻļেāĻˇ āĻĒā§°িāĻšাāĻ˛āĻ¨া āĻ¸āĻŽিāĻ¤ি āĻ—āĻ āĻ¨ āĻ•ā§°িāĻŦ āĻĒাā§°ে

3)      āĻŦিāĻ¤্āĻ¤ীāĻ¯় āĻ¸্āĻŦāĻ¤āĻ¨্āĻ¤্ā§°āĻ¤া :-
      āĻ¯āĻĻিāĻ“ ā§°াāĻœāĻšুā§ąা āĻ‰āĻĻ্āĻ¯োāĻ—āĻŦোā§°āĻ¤ āĻšā§°āĻ•াā§°ে āĻŦিāĻ¨িāĻ¯়োāĻ— āĻ•ā§°ে āĻ¤āĻĨাāĻĒিāĻ“ āĻāĻ¨ে āĻ‰āĻĻ্āĻ¯োāĻ—āĻŦোā§° āĻŦিāĻ¤্āĻ¤ীāĻ¯় āĻ•্āĻˇেāĻ¤্ā§°āĻ¤ āĻ¸্āĻŦāĻ¤āĻ¨্āĻ¤্ā§° āĻšāĻ¯় ৷ āĻĻৈāĻ¨āĻ¨্āĻĻিāĻ¨ āĻĒ্ā§°āĻ¯়োāĻœāĻ¨ীāĻ¯়āĻ¤াā§° āĻŦাāĻŦে āĻāĻ¨ে āĻ‰āĻĻ্āĻ¯োāĻ— āĻšā§°āĻ•াā§°ā§° āĻ“āĻĒā§°āĻ¤ āĻ¨িā§°্āĻ­ā§°āĻļীāĻ˛ āĻ¨āĻšāĻ¯় ৷

4)      ā§°াāĻœāĻšুā§ąা āĻ¸েā§ąা :-
     ā§°াāĻœāĻšুā§ąা āĻ‰āĻĻ্āĻ¯োāĻ— āĻ¸াāĻŽাāĻœিāĻ• āĻ¸েā§ąাā§° āĻ‰āĻĻ্āĻĻেāĻļ্āĻ¯ā§° āĻĻ্āĻŦাā§°া āĻĒā§°িāĻšাāĻ˛িāĻ¤ āĻšāĻ¯় ৷ āĻāĻ¨ে āĻ‰āĻĻ্āĻ¯োāĻ—ā§° āĻŽূāĻ–্āĻ¯ āĻ‰āĻĻ্āĻĻেāĻļ্āĻ¯ āĻšৈāĻ›ে āĻ¸াāĻŽাāĻœিāĻ• āĻ¸েā§ąা āĻ†āĻ—āĻŦāĻĸ়োā§ąা ৷

5)      āĻāĻ•āĻšেāĻŸীāĻ¯়া āĻŦ্āĻ¯ā§ąāĻ¸াāĻ¯় :-
    āĻ•িāĻ›ুāĻŽাāĻ¨ āĻ•্āĻˇেāĻ¤্ā§°āĻ¤  ā§°াāĻœāĻšুā§ąা āĻ‰āĻĻ্āĻ¯োāĻ—ে āĻāĻ•āĻšেāĻŸীāĻ¯়া āĻŦ্āĻ¯ā§ąāĻ¸াāĻ¯় āĻ•ā§°ে ৷āĻ¯েāĻ¨ে :- āĻ­াā§°āĻ¤ীāĻ¯় ā§°ে’āĻ˛  ৷āĻāĻ¨ে āĻ•্āĻˇেāĻ¤্ā§°āĻŦোā§°āĻ¤ āĻŦ্āĻ¯āĻ•্āĻ¤িāĻ—āĻ¤ āĻ–āĻŖ্āĻĄāĻ• āĻ¸োāĻŽাāĻŦāĻ˛ৈ āĻ…āĻ¨ুāĻŽāĻ¤ি āĻĻিāĻ¯়া āĻ¨āĻšāĻ¯় ৷


6)           ā§°াāĻœāĻšুā§ąা āĻ–āĻŖ্āĻĄā§° āĻ‰āĻĻ্āĻ¯োāĻ—ে āĻšā§°āĻ•াā§°ী āĻĒā§°িāĻ•āĻ˛্āĻĒāĻ¨া āĻ•াā§°্āĻ¯āĻ•ā§°ীāĻ•ā§°āĻŖāĻ¤ āĻ¸āĻšাāĻ¯় āĻ•ā§°ে  ৷

 Public enterprise (ā§°াāĻœāĻšুā§ąা āĻ‰āĻĻ্āĻ¯োāĻ—)


   āĻ¯িāĻŦোā§° āĻ‰āĻĻ্āĻ¯োāĻ—ā§° āĻŽাāĻ˛িāĻ•ীāĻ¸্āĻŦāĻ¤্āĻŦ āĻ†ā§°ু āĻĒā§°িāĻšাāĻ˛āĻ¨াā§° āĻĻাāĻ¯়িāĻ¤্āĻŦ āĻ¸āĻŽ্āĻĒূā§°্āĻŖā§°ুāĻĒে āĻŦা āĻ†ংāĻļিāĻ•āĻ­াā§ąে āĻšā§°āĻ•াā§°ā§° āĻšাāĻ¤āĻ¤ āĻĨাāĻ•ে āĻ¤েāĻ¨েāĻŦোā§° āĻ‰āĻĻ্āĻ¯োāĻ—āĻ•ে ā§°াāĻœāĻšুā§ąা āĻ‰āĻĻ্āĻ¯োāĻ— āĻŦোāĻ˛ে ৷āĻāĻ–āĻ¨ āĻĻেāĻļā§° āĻĻā§°িāĻĻ্ā§°āĻ¤া ,āĻ¨িā§ąāĻ¨ুā§ąা āĻ¸āĻŽāĻ¸্āĻ¯া āĻ†ā§°ু āĻ”āĻĻ্āĻ¯োāĻ—িāĻ• āĻ…āĻ¨āĻ—্ā§°āĻ¸ā§°āĻ¤া āĻĻূā§° āĻ•ā§°াā§° āĻ˛āĻ—āĻ¤ে āĻŽূāĻ˛āĻ§āĻ¨ āĻ—āĻ āĻ¨āĻ¤ো āĻ¸āĻšাāĻ¯় āĻ•ā§°ি ā§°াāĻœāĻšুā§ąা āĻ‰āĻĻ্āĻ¯োāĻ— āĻ–āĻŖ্āĻĄāĻ‡ āĻ…ā§°্āĻĨāĻ¨ৈāĻ¤িāĻ• āĻŦিāĻ•াāĻļā§° āĻ—āĻ¤ি  āĻ•্āĻˇীāĻĒ্ā§° āĻ•ā§°িāĻŦ āĻĒাā§°ে ৷

     A.H. Hansen –ā§° āĻŽāĻ¤ে , “ Public enterprise means state ownership and operation of industrial,agricultural,financial and commercial understandings .”


     N.N Mallya ā§° āĻŽāĻ¤ে , “ ā§°াāĻœāĻšুā§ąা āĻ‰āĻĻ্āĻ¯োāĻ— āĻš’āĻ˛, ā§°াāĻˇ্āĻŸ্ā§°ā§° āĻĻ্āĻŦাā§°া āĻ¨িāĻ¯়āĻ¨্āĻ¤্ā§°িāĻ¤ āĻ”āĻĻ্āĻ¯োāĻ—িāĻ•  āĻ†ā§°ু āĻŦাāĻŖিāĻœ্āĻ¯িāĻ• āĻ•াā§°্āĻ¯ā§° āĻ˛āĻ—āĻ¤ āĻœāĻĄ়িāĻ¤ āĻ¸্āĻŦāĻ¤āĻ¨্āĻ¤্ā§° āĻŦা āĻ…ā§°্āĻ§āĻ¸্āĻŦāĻ¤āĻ¨্āĻ¤্ā§° āĻ¨িāĻ—āĻŽ āĻŦা āĻ•োāĻŽ্āĻĒাāĻ¨ী ৷”

Tuesday, 17 December 2013

what is Deflation { āĻŽুāĻĻ্ā§°া āĻ¸ংāĻ•োāĻšāĻ¨ āĻ•ি ? }

    āĻ‡ āĻŽুāĻĻ্ā§°াāĻ¸্āĻĢীāĻ¤িā§° āĻŦিāĻĒā§°ীāĻ¤ āĻ…ā§ąāĻ¸্āĻĨা ৷ āĻ…ā§°্āĻĨ্āĻ¯াā§Ž, āĻŽুāĻĻ্ā§°া āĻ¸ংāĻ•োāĻšāĻ¨ āĻšৈāĻ›ে āĻāĻ¨ে āĻāĻ• āĻ…ā§ąāĻ¸্āĻĨা āĻ¯িāĻŸো āĻ…ā§ąāĻ¸্āĻĨাāĻ¤ āĻ…ā§°্āĻĨāĻ¨ীāĻ¤ি āĻāĻ–āĻ¨āĻ¤ āĻŽুāĻĻ্ā§°াā§° āĻŽূāĻ˛্āĻ¯ āĻŦৃāĻĻ্āĻ§ি āĻĒাāĻ¯় āĻ†āĻ¨āĻšাāĻ¤ে āĻĻā§°āĻ¸্āĻ¤ā§° āĻš্ā§°াāĻ¸ āĻĒাāĻ¯় ৷
    āĻ…ā§°্āĻĨāĻ¨ীāĻ¤িāĻŦিāĻĻ āĻĒিāĻ—ুā§° āĻŽāĻ¤ে āĻ‰ā§ŽāĻĒাāĻĻিāĻ¤ āĻĻ্ā§°āĻŦ্āĻ¯ āĻ†ā§°ু āĻ¸েā§ąাā§° āĻĒā§°িāĻŽাāĻ¨ āĻŽুāĻĻ্ā§°া āĻ†āĻ¯়ā§° āĻ¤ুāĻ˛āĻ¨াāĻ¤ āĻ…āĻ§িāĻ• āĻš’āĻ˛ে āĻŽুāĻĻ্ā§°া āĻ¸ংāĻ•োāĻšāĻ¨ āĻ˜āĻŸে ৷
   āĻŽুāĻĻ্ā§°া āĻ¸ংāĻ•োāĻšāĻ¨ā§° āĻĒ্ā§°āĻ§াāĻ¨ āĻŦৈāĻļিāĻˇ্āĻŸ্āĻ¯āĻ¸āĻŽূāĻš āĻš’āĻ˛-
        āĻ•] āĻŽুāĻĻ্ā§°া āĻ†āĻ¯়ā§° āĻĒā§°িāĻŽাāĻ¨āĻ¤āĻ•ৈ āĻĒ্ā§°āĻ•ৃāĻ¤ āĻ‰ā§ŽāĻĒাāĻĻāĻ¨ āĻŦেāĻ›ি āĻšāĻ¯় ৷
        āĻ–] āĻŦāĻœাā§°āĻ¤ āĻŽুāĻĻ্ā§°াā§° āĻšাāĻšিāĻĻাāĻ¤āĻ•ৈ āĻŽুāĻĻ্ā§°াā§° āĻĒā§°িāĻŽাāĻŖ āĻ•āĻŽ āĻĨাāĻ•ে ৷

        āĻ—] āĻĻ্ā§°āĻŦ্āĻ¯ āĻ¸াāĻŽāĻ—্ā§°ীā§° āĻšাāĻšিāĻĻাāĻ¤āĻ•ৈ āĻ¯োāĻ—াāĻ¨ āĻŦেāĻ›ি āĻĨাāĻ•ে৷
Net Indirect Tex(NIT)
Net Indirect Tex refers to the difference between indirect taxes and subsidies. i.e.
                   NIT=Indirect Taxes - Subsidies.
The concept of NIT is very important to differenciate between factor cost and market  price of a commodity.
Therefore,
               Market Price= factor cost + NIT
               Factor Cost= Market Price - NIT.

Net Factor Income from Abroad(NFIA)
NFIA refers to difference between factor income received from the rest of the world (ROW) and factor income paid to the rest of the world. i.e.
                    NFIA= Factor income earned from abroad - factor income paid to the abroad.
NFIA is significant to differenciate between domestic income and national income. i.e.
                     National Income(NI)=Domestic income + NFIA.
                     Domestic income =National income - NFIA .
 

what is Inflation ( āĻŽুāĻĻ্ā§°াāĻ¸্āĻĢীāĻ¤ি āĻ•ি ? )


   āĻ¸াāĻ§াā§°āĻŖ āĻ…ā§°্āĻĨāĻ¤ āĻŽুāĻĻ্ā§°াāĻ¸্āĻĢীāĻ¤ি āĻŦুāĻ˛িāĻ˛ে āĻ†āĻŽি āĻĻā§° āĻŦৃāĻĻ্āĻ§ি āĻšোā§ąাāĻ•ে āĻŦুāĻœোঁ ৷ āĻ…āĻ˛āĻĒ āĻŦāĻšāĻ˛ āĻ…ā§°্āĻĨāĻ¤ āĻ•’āĻŦāĻ˛ৈ āĻ—āĻ˛ে āĻŽুāĻĻ্ā§°াāĻ¸্āĻĢীāĻ¤ি āĻšৈāĻ›ে āĻāĻ¨ে āĻāĻ• āĻ…ā§ąāĻ¸্āĻĨা, āĻ¯ি āĻ…ā§ąāĻ¸্āĻĨাāĻ¤ āĻ…ā§°্āĻĨāĻ¨ীāĻ¤ি āĻāĻ–āĻ¨āĻ¤ āĻ¸্āĻĨাāĻ¯়ী āĻ†ā§°ু āĻ…āĻŦিā§°āĻ¤āĻ­াā§ąে āĻŽূāĻ˛্āĻ¯āĻ¸্āĻ¤ā§° āĻŦৃāĻĻ্āĻ§ি āĻšāĻ¯় āĻ†ā§°ু āĻŽূāĻĻ্ā§°াā§° āĻŽূāĻ˛্āĻ¯ā§° āĻ…ā§ąāĻ¨āĻ¤ি āĻ˜āĻŸে ৷ āĻŽুāĻĻ্ā§°াāĻ¸্āĻĢীāĻ¤ি āĻ¸āĻŽ্āĻĒā§°্āĻ•āĻ¤ āĻŦিāĻ­িāĻ¨্āĻ¨ āĻ…ā§°্āĻĨāĻ¨ীāĻ¤িāĻŦিāĻĻে āĻŦিāĻ­িāĻ¨āĻ¨ āĻ§ā§°āĻŖā§° āĻ¸ংāĻœ্āĻžা āĻĻাāĻ™ি āĻ§ā§°িāĻ›ে –
   
    āĻ…āĻ§্āĻ¯াāĻĒāĻ• Coulbourn ā§° āĻŽāĻ¤ে, Inflation is a situation of too much money chasing too few goods.”
       
     āĻ…āĻ§্āĻ¯াāĻĒāĻ•  Crowther āĻ¯়ে āĻ•ৈāĻ›ে āĻ¯ে , “ Inflation is a state in which the value of money is falling i.e. prices rising.”
        
     āĻ…āĻ¨্āĻ¯ āĻāĻœāĻ¨ āĻŦিāĻļিāĻˇ্āĻŸ āĻ…ā§°্āĻĨāĻ¨ীāĻ¤িāĻŦিāĻĻ Gregory ā§° āĻŽāĻ¤ে , “ Inflation is a state of abnormal increasing the quantity of purchasing power .”

    
     āĻŽুāĻĻ্ā§°াāĻ¸্āĻĢীāĻ¤ি āĻĒ্ā§°āĻ§াāĻ¨āĻ•ৈ āĻāĻ• āĻŽৌāĻĻ্ā§°িāĻ• āĻŦিāĻˇāĻ¯় ৷ āĻ‡āĻ¯়াā§° āĻĒ্ā§°āĻ§াāĻ¨ āĻ˛āĻ•্āĻˇāĻŖ āĻšৈāĻ›ে āĻ…āĻŦিā§°āĻ¤ āĻ†ā§°ু āĻ‰āĻ˛্āĻ˛েāĻ–āĻ¯োāĻ—্āĻ¯āĻ­াā§ąে āĻŦৃāĻĻ্āĻ§ি āĻĒোā§ąা āĻŽূāĻ˛্āĻ¯āĻ¸্āĻ¤ā§° ৷ āĻŦā§°্āĻ¤āĻŽাāĻ¨ āĻ¸āĻŽāĻ¯়āĻ¤ āĻŽূāĻĻ্ā§°াāĻ¸্āĻĢীāĻ¤ি āĻĒৃāĻĨিā§ąীā§° āĻĒ্ā§°াāĻ¯়āĻŦোā§° āĻĻেāĻļā§° āĻ…ā§°্āĻĨāĻ¨ীāĻ¤িā§°ে āĻāĻ• āĻĒ্ā§°āĻ§াāĻ¨āĻ¤āĻŽ āĻ¸āĻŽāĻ¸্āĻ¯া āĻšৈ āĻĒā§°িāĻ›ে ৷